Also known as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) or propane autogas, propane is a clean-burning alternative fuel that's been used
for decades to power light-, medium-, and heavy-duty propane vehicles.
Propane is a three-carbon alkane gas (C3H8). It is stored under pressure inside a tank as a colorless, odorless liquid. As pressure is released, the liquid propane vaporizes
and turns into gas that is used in combustion. An odorant, ethyl mercaptan, is added for leak detection. (See fuel properties.)
Propane has a high octane rating, making it an excellent choice for spark-ignited internal combustion engines. If spilled or released from a vehicle, it presents no threat
to soil, surface water, or groundwater. Propane is produced as a by-product of natural gas processing and crude oil refining. It accounts for about 2% of the energy used in the
United States. Of that, less than 3% is used for transportation. Its main uses include home and water heating, cooking and refrigerating food, clothes drying, and powering farm
and industrial equipment. The chemical industry also uses propane as a raw material for making plastics and other compounds.
Propane as an Alternative Fuel
Interest in propane as an alternative transportation fuel stems from its domestic availability, high-energy density, clean-burning qualities, and relatively low cost. It is
the world's third most common transportation fuel, behind gasoline and diesel, and is considered an alternative fuel under the Energy Policy Act of 1992.
Propane used in vehicles is specified as HD-5 propane and is a mixture of propane with smaller amounts of other gases. According to the Gas Processors Association's HD-5
specification for propane, it must consist of at least 90% propane, no more than 5% propylene, and 5% other gases, primarily butane and butylene. (See fuel properties.)
For vehicle fueling, the quick-release "Type K15" dispenser connector is required to be installed on all new vehicles beginning January 1, 2020, per National Fire
Protection Association Code 58. This connector allows for one-handed fueling and does not require the use of personal protective equipment such as gloves and face shield (which
are required for the older style connector).
Propane is stored onboard a vehicle in a tank pressurized to about 150 pounds per square inch—about twice the pressure of an inflated truck tire. Under this pressure,
propane becomes a liquid with an energy density 270 times greater than its gaseous form. Propane has a higher octane rating than gasoline, so it can be used with higher engine
compression ratios and is more resistant to engine knocking. However, it has a lower British thermal unit rating than gasoline, so it takes more fuel by volume to drive the same
distance.
Why is dichloromethane a good solvent?
Dichloromethane is an organic solvent and therefore it can dissolve many non-polar organic molecules (establishing
London type interactions). However, it has a large dipole moment (see figure) and therefore it can also dissolve polar molecules (with London type interactions and dipole-dipole
interactions). Because of the high dipole moment, it is a good non-aqueous solvent for chemical reactions involving polar molecules.
Adipic Acid
Adipic acid, or more formally hexanedioic acid, is a white crystalline solid that melts at 152 oC. It is one of the most
important monomers in the polymer industry.
Adipic acid is found in beet juice, but the article of commerce—≈2.5 million tonnes of it per year—is manufactured. In 1906, French chemists L. Bouveault and R. Locquin
reported that adipic acid can be produced by oxidizing cyclohexanol. Today, the most common manufacturing process is the nitric acid (HNO3) oxidation of a cyclohexanol–
cyclohexanone mixture called KA (for ketone–alcohol) oil.
Almost all adipic acid is used as a comonomer with hexamethylenediamine to produce nylon 6-6. It is also used to manufacture other polymers such as polyurethanes.
ethanol
ethanol, also called ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol, or alcohol, a member of a class of organic compounds that are given the
general name alcohols; its molecular formula is C2H5OH. Ethanol is an important industrial chemical; it is used as a solvent, in the synthesis of other organic chemicals, and as
an additive to automotive gasoline (forming a mixture known as a gasohol). Ethanol is also the intoxicating ingredient of many alcoholic beverages such as beer, wine, and
distilled spirits.
There are two main processes for the manufacture of ethanol: the fermentation of carbohydrates (the method used for alcoholic beverages) and the hydration of ethylene.
Fermentation involves the transformation of carbohydrates to ethanol by growing yeast cells. The chief raw materials fermented for the production of industrial alcohol are sugar
crops such as beets and sugarcane and grain crops such as corn (maize). Hydration of ethylene is achieved by passing a mixture of ethylene and a large excess of steam at high
temperature and pressure over an acidic catalyst.
There are two main processes for the manufacture of ethanol: the fermentation of carbohydrates (the method used for alcoholic beverages) and the hydration of ethylene.
Fermentation involves the transformation of carbohydrates to ethanol by growing yeast cells. The chief raw materials fermented for the production of industrial alcohol are sugar
crops such as beets and sugarcane and grain crops such as corn (maize). Hydration of ethylene is achieved by passing a mixture of ethylene and a large excess of steam at high
temperature and pressure over an acidic catalyst.
Ethanol produced either by fermentation or by synthesis is obtained as a dilute aqueous solution and must be concentrated by fractional distillation. Direct distillation can
yield at best the constant-boiling-point mixture containing 95.6 percent by weight of ethanol. Dehydration of the constant-boiling-point mixture yields anhydrous, or absolute,
alcohol. Ethanol intended for industrial use is usually denatured (rendered unfit to drink), typically with methanol, benzene, or kerosene.
Maleic anhydride (CAS 108-31-6) derives from natural malic acid. Maleic anhydride as well as maleic and fumaric acids
were first prepared in the 1830s. However, commercial manufacture did not begin until a century later. In 1933, the National Aniline and Chemical Co., Inc., used a process for
producing maleic anhydride based on benzene oxidation using a vanadium oxide catalyst. Advances in catalyst technology, increased regulatory pressures, and continuing cost
advantages of butane over benzene have led to a rapid conversion of benzene- to butane-based plants. By the mid-1980s in the United States, 100% of maleic anhydride production
used butane as the feedstock.
At room temperature, maleic anhydride is a white crystalline solid with an acrid odor, but is a liquid or gas during chemical production
. Two acid carbonyl groups and a double bond appear in its formula, which make it useful for broad industrial applications. Manufacturing processes for maleic anhydride
include those using fixed-, fluidized-, and transport-bed technologies for selective oxidation of butane.
Maleic anhydride (MA) is also often used as a compatibilizer in two immiscible polymer blends. MA is highly reactive with PLA free radicals induced by an initiator, such as
2,5-bis(tert-butylperoxy)-2,5 dimethylhexane (L101), and the anhydride group can react with hydroxyls from starch to form ester linkages, as schematically shown in Figure 11.20.
The carboxylic groups arising from the hydrolyzed anhydride can also form hydrogen bonding with the hydroxyl groups [56]. The function of the initiator is to induce free
radicals of PLA that can react with MA.
Acetonitrile
Acetonitrile is one of the most frequently utilized eluents in reverse phase chromatographic purification of peptides,
partially thanks to its low viscosity, high chemical stability and strong eluting power. Moreover, it has also found widespread applications as a polar aprotic solvent in
organic synthesis.
Acetonitrile is produced mainly as a byproduct of acrylonitrile manufacture via Sohio process by means of propylene ammoxidation.20 In the acrylonitrile production with
the aforementioned process hydrogen cyanide is released as a byproduct.21 Pure acetonitrile is recovered by distillation from the waste before the treatment. If residual
hydrogen cyanide survives the intermediary purification steps it will contaminate the acetonitrile. Moreover, in spite of its significant chemical stability acetonitrile does
suffer from decomposition when heated or reacted with acid or oxidizing agents. The pyrolysis or chemical degradation of acetonitrile will also lead to the formation of hydrogen
cyanide.22,23 It is know that cyanide could function with carbonyl derivatives, e.g., ketones or aldehydes, by means of nucleophilic addition to generate the corresponding
cyanohydrin derivatives
It has been detected in certain experiments that an impurity with a +27 amu molecular weight increase could be generated by stressing the target peptide in acetonitrile
(Yang, Y., unpublished results). The content of the concerned impurity will be augmented upon the addition of NaOH. This undesired side reaction is thoroughly suppressed in the
event of replacement of acetonitrile by methanol. Even though no direct proof was obtained to correlate the occurrence of the referred +27 amu impurity with the possible
existence of hydrogen cyanide in acetonitrile, it is assumed that the product might suffer from the nucleophilic attack from the residual hydrogen cyanide accumulated in
acetonitrile, especially taking into consideration the existence of the susceptible ketone carbonyl moiety in the target peptide molecule that serves as the receptor for cyanide
addition. For the majority of peptides the aforementioned potential side reaction triggered by acetonitrile might be trivial, however, the severity of this undesired phenomenon
could be enhanced under certain conditions where factors such as acetonitrile quality, existence of susceptible functional group, pH, temperature and reaction time act
synergistically.
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